RNA elements and their biotechnological applications in plants.

Engineering of plants for improved traits and efficient heterologous protein production can be achieved by modifying or introducing cis- or trans-acting RNA elements. The function of these elements depends not only on their nucleotide sequence but also on their highly dynamic higher order structures. In this review, we explore RNA regulatory elements with established or potential application in plant biotechnology. We discuss RNA elements involved in translational control, transcript stability, and protein coproduction, as well as RNA domains that mediate conditional expression, RNA decay, or cap-independent initiation. While some of these elements can be used in transiently or stably transformed plants, others have proven valuable in plant-based in vitro expression systems. Additionally, we highlight RNA elements important for plastid gene expression. Finally, we examine RNA elements that are yet to be applied in plant biotechnology but have been successfully used in other organisms or require further understanding before they can be effectively utilized.